This assessment is... No data point selected. The three largest 1811-1812 earthquakes destroyed several settlements along the Mississippi River, caused minor structural damage as far away as Cincinnati, Ohio, and St. Louis, Missouri, and were felt as far away as Hartford, Connecticut, Charleston, South Carolina, and New Orleans, Louisiana. If the pore-water pressure increases to the point that it equals the weight of the overlying soil, the sediment liquefies and behaves as a fluid. Viewed from above, sand blow have circular, elliptical, and linear shapes and can range up to tens of meters in width and hundreds of meters in length. Saint Louis University's Madrid Campus delivers a world-class education and will expand your cultural horizons, whether you study with us for four years or just a few months. Most notably, the rift was the site of the tremendous New Madrid...…, Fault, in geology, a planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of Earth’s crust, where...…. This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/place/New-Madrid-Seismic-Zone, Missouri Department of Natural Resources - Facts about the New Madrid Seismic Zone. Find all the latest transfer news here from around the world, powered by Goal.com. New Madrid Seismic Zone (NMSZ), region of poorly understood, deep-seated faults in Earth’s crust that zigzag southwest-northeast through Arkansas, Missouri, Tennessee, and Kentucky, U.S. Overlying soil "floating" on liquefied sediments moves down even gentle slopes, causing fissuring and lateral and vertical displacements. These observations support the interpretation that the prehistoric events were similar in location and magnitude to the 1811-1812 earthquakes and also suggests that they too were earthquake sequences. In the winter of 1811 and 1812, the New Madrid seismic zone generated a sequence of earthquakes that lasted for several months and included three very large earthquakes estimated to be between magnitude 7 and 8. (Public domain.). Sand dike intruded weathered sand; sill emplaced below weathered clay. Photograph of sand blow deposit and related feeder dike exposed in excavation. to 1670 A.D. Paleoseismic studies concluded that the New Madrid seismic zone generated magnitude 7 to 8 earthquakes about every 500 years during the past 1,200 years. Paleoseismic (geologic) studies conducted over the last 20 years have shown that sequences of earthquakes of comparable size to that in 1811-1812 have occurred at least twice before, in approximately 900 and 1450 AD. (epicentre 36.6° N 89.6° W), each measuring greater than magnitude 7.0. Twitter. (modified from the original) (Credit: Martin Luff. (Public domain.). The faults that produce earthquakes are not easy to see at the surface in the New Madrid region because they are eroded by river processes and deeply buried by river sediment. Corrections? Paleoseismology is the study of the timing, location, and magnitude of prehistoric earthquakes preserved in the geologic record. Madrid’s third straight league victory left Zidane’s team five points behind Atlético, which won 2-1 at Granada on Saturday and has two games in hand. Sand blows are deposits that form on the ground surface as the result of venting of water and sand. Updates? Omissions? (See New Madrid earthquakes of 1811–12.). Sand blows formed over an extremely large area about 10,400 square kilometers. Generally, we have met with the CUSEC State Geologists and been able to come to agreement at least between the State Surveys and the USGS, as well as many other scientists. Public domain.). Sand dike fills fissure that formed in soil. Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. These levels are reflected in the National Seismic Hazard Maps, which represent the products of a long consensus building process. Sand blows composed of several layers that fine upward from coarse sand to silt and capped by clay probably formed as a result of multiple earthquakes. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Sports Desk, Mar 13 (efe-epa).- Karim Benzema scored both goals for Real Madrid as the reigning LaLiga champions edged Elche 2-1 on Saturday to remain in the 2020-2021 title race. Last Sunday, Karim Benzema’s late equaliser helped los Blancos draw 1-1 at Atlético Madrid in el Derbi Madrileño. Sand blows usually contain clasts, pieces of underlying deposits and soil horizons ripped from the dike walls as the liquefied sand erupted to the surface. ; Dart, R. L. Putting down roots in earthquake country-Your handbook for earthquakes in the Central United States; 2011; GIP; 119; Contributors: Dart, Richard; McCarthy, Jill; McCallister, Natasha; Williams, Robert A. Wisconsin valley train deposits formed during the glacial period from 10,000-60,000 years ago, and the Holocene meander belt deposits were laid down during the past 10,000 years. Pinterest. Bicentennial of the 1811-1812 New Madrid earthquake sequence December 2011-2012; 2010; GIP; 118; U.S. Geological Survey. ReddIt. After a major earthquake in the New Madrid or Wabash Valley seismic zone, what changes to the landscape would we most likely see? Three earthquakes in this sequence had a magnitude (M) of 7.0 or greater. In eastern North America, where near-surface faulting is uncommon or difficult to identify, paleoseismology often employs liquefaction features to learn about prehistoric earthquakes. One of the 1812 earthquakes occurred on a fault that actually crossed the river three times. Liquefaction features include sand blows, dikes, and sills. Sand dikes are sediment-filled cracks through which water and sand flowed. (Public domain.). (Public domain.). Given this and other new information, can one estimate the probability of damaging earthquakes in the New Madrid seismic zone? Clifford Chance, Madrid Paseo de la Castellana 110 28046 Madrid Spain Tel +34915907500 Fax +34915907575 Additional information for Madrid Legal entity: Clifford Chance, S.L.P.U. As shown in the map above, it stretches to the southwest from New Madrid… New Madrid dwindled to insignificance and decay; the people trembling in their miserable hovels at the distant and melancholy rumbling of the approaching shocks. Many factors affect how susceptible materials are to liquefaction, but some of the most important requirements are the degree of water saturation, the size of the grains, and how well cemented they are. No one knows what causes New Madrid earthquakes. In addition, the size and spatial distributions of historic and sand blows that formed about 1450 A.D. and 900 A.D. were determined to be strikingly similar to each other, suggesting that the prehistoric earthquakes had similar locations and magnitudes to the 1811-1812 earthquakes. But no job can be more rewarding or prestigious, as we saw in recent years when Zinedine Zidane won the Champions League trophy an unprecedented … Below are publications associated with this project. After the 1811/1812 earthquakes there were reports that the Mississippi River flowed backward. Woodland ceramics are characterized by grog (ground up potsherds or fired clay) and sand tempering; whereas, Mississippian ceramics are characterized by shell tempering. However, there are ideas that are being researched. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... …it is known as the New Madrid Fault. The Real Madrid vs Elche match is scheduled to begin at 8:45 PM IST (4:15 PM local time) from the Estadio Alfredo Di Stefano, Madrid on March 13, 2021. In the New Madrid region, sand blows can still be seen on the surface today. Select an event Villa de Madrid . The most obvious effects of the 1811-1812 earthquakes are the large sandy deposits, known as sand blows, resulting from eruption of water and sand to the ground surface. Most artifacts encountered during studies of New Madrid sand blows are from the Woodland and Mississippian cultures, which thrived from about 200 B.C. Radiocarbon dating of plant remains is the most commonly used dating technique in paleoseismology. Villa de Madrid Copernicus Cup New Balance Indoor Grand Prix Meeting Hauts-de-France Pas-de-Calais For scale, shovel blade is 20 cm wide. Earthquake Hazard in the New Madrid Seismic Zone Remains a Concern; 2009; FS; 2009-3071; Frankel, A. D.; Applegate, D.; Tuttle, M. P.; Williams, R. A. 20 cool facts about the New Madrid Seismic Zone-Commemorating the bicentennial of the New Madrid earthquake sequence, December 1811-February 1812 [poster]; 2011; GIP; 134; Williams, R. A.; McCallister, N.S. Aerial photograph showing light-colored patches that are sand blow deposits near Lepanto, Arkansas (from U.S. Department of Agriculture, January 26, 1964). Although there are uncertainties regarding their age ranges, certain pottery and point types, as well as plant remains, are considered diagnostic of various cultural periods. New Madrid seismicity is spatially associated with the Reelfoot rift and may be produced by movement on old faults in response to compressive stress related to plate motions. Other relatively young faults, which are not necessarily associated with recent earthquakes, or the main seismicity trend in the New Madrid region, are shown in this map. This implies a recurrence interval of about 500 years. Can you explain this phenomenon and what is it called? Real Madrid return to play against Eibar at the Di Stefano on Saturday. One of the things we have learned is that coming up with probabilities is much more difficult than we used to think. (Credit: Martitia Tuttle. Viewed in cross-section or in excavations and riverbanks, sand blows commonly take the form of large lenses 1 to 2 m in thickness. For example, Bell Plain, Campbell Appliqué, and Parkin Punctate pottery and Nodena points are diagnostic of the Late Mississippian period; Old Town Red pottery and Madison points are diagnostic of the Middle Mississippian period; Varney Red Filmed pottery is diagnostic of the Early Mississippian period; and Barnes pottery and Table Rock stemmed points are diagnostic of the Late Woodland period. Differences of opinion within the research community invariably will arise. The Real Madrid gig is the most coveted coaching position in football and probably in all of professional sports. Experience of belonging to Real Madrid! The victory lifted the Blancos to second place with 57 points, 5 fewer than leaders Atletico Madrid pending the Colchoneros’ match later Saturday. The upper 30 meters of sediment within the embayment includes sand, silt, and clay deposited by the Mississippi, Ohio, St. Francis, and White Rivers and their tributaries over the past 60,000 years. Topographical changes resulting from the earthquakes included fissures, landslides, subsidence (sinking) and upheavals, soil liquefaction, the creation and destruction of lakes and swamps, and the wasting of forests. In the New Madrid region, the earthquakes dramatically affected the landscape. In addition, the earthquakes liquefied subsurface sediment over a large area and at great distances resulting in ground fissuring and violent venting of water and sediment. This handbook provides information to residents of the Central United States about the threat of earthquakes in that area, particularly along the New Madrid seismic zone, and explains how to prepare for, survive, and recover from such events. Many sand blows formed above scroll bars of Pemiscot Bayou, also known as Left Hand Chute of Little River.n (Public domain. It is preferable to have radiocarbon dates from both overlying and underlying horizons to bracket the age of the sand blow. This type of landslide known as lateral spreading is commonly responsible for damage to infrastructure (bridges, roads, buildings) during major earthquakes. Der Präsident des Robert-Koch-Instituts (RKI), Lothar Wieler, hat sich mit dem Impfstoff von Astrazeneca gegen das Coronavirus impfen lassen. With a … The lower Mississippi River Valley was a fertile homeland to Native Americans from about 9500 B.C. Here are the Real Madrid vs Elche live stream details, where to watch Real Madrid vs Elche live in India, Real Madrid vs Elche prediction and the Real Madrid vs Elche team news. In the New Madrid seismic zone, many sand blows appear as light-colored sandy patches in plowed fields. The presence of Native Americans is still evident today in the occasional mound not yet destroyed by modern agricultural practices and the abundant potsherds, lithic tools and points, and bone fragments found in plowed fields and river and ditch cutbanks. ), Photograph of some diagnostic artifact types in New Madrid region: 1, Campbell Appliqué; 2, Bell Plain; 3, Nodena Elliptical point; 4, Nodena Banks variety point; 5, Parkin Punctate; 6, Madison point; 7, Varney Red Filmed; 8, Barnes Cord Marked; 9, daub with wattle impression. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. Click on a pin on the map to see more information. Layering within the dike and sill indicate that they formed during two or more events. Madrid’s airport has five terminals: T1, T2, T3, T4 and T4S, using a total of four runways. Generally these are not critical to people outside the research arena. These maps also account for the uncertainties in our understanding. WhatsApp. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). But earthquakes also happen in the eastern and central U.S. Until 2014, when the dramatic increase in earthquake rates gave Oklahoma the number one ranking in the conterminous U.S., the most seismically active area east of the Rocky Mountains was in the Mississippi Valley area known as the New Madrid seismic zone. Similarly, plant remains and other organics found in cultural horizons can be used to date associated sand blows. The Mississippi embayment is underlain by Paleozoic sedimentary rocks up to 570 millions years old. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. The uplift along this fault formed a scarp or cliff that caused both a dam and waterfalls at different locations. This poster summarizes a few of the more significant facts about the series of large earthquakes that struck the New Madrid seismic zone of southeastern Missouri, northeastern Arkansas, and adjacent parts of Tennessee and Kentucky from December 1811 to February 1812. Knowledge of the pattern of earthquakes in a region and over long periods of time helps to understand the long-term behavior of faults and seismic zones and is used to forecast the future likelihood of damaging earthquakes. (Photo by Martitia Tuttle, NEHRP-funded research. Linkedin. The resulting slurry of water and sediment tends to flow towards the ground surface along cracks and other weaknesses. Atleti’s 5-3-2 and 6-3-1 blocks have another defensive defect: they commit so many men to the last line that there are not enough men in the midfield line defending the penalty spot and zone … This phenomenon called earthquake-induced liquefaction is the process by which water-saturated, sandy sediment temporarily loses its strength due to the buildup of water pressure in the pores between sand grains as seismic waves pass through the sediment. Year Published: 2019 Four major Holocene earthquakes on the Reelfoot fault recorded by sackungen in the New Madrid seismic zone, USA. Late Mississippian ceramic artifacts found above and below sand blow suggest that it formed between 1400 and 1670 A.D. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal in the soil horizon buried by the sand blow indicates that it formed after 1290 A.D. Radiocarbon dating of a corn kernel collected from a wall trench dug into the top of the sand blow indicates that it formed before 1460 A.D. The 1811-1812 earthquakes in the New Madrid Seismic Zone impacted most of the simple buildings in New Madrid and Little Prairie (Caruthersville), the two towns in the area at the time. The Little Prarie settlement was broken up. When they are, the USGS sometimes has held workshops to try to come to a consensus and at other times has announced our own internal consensus. Both cultural periods are subdivided into early, middle, and late intervals. The ground shaking estimated accounts for both the likely ranges of recurrence intervals and locations. The Reelfoot rift is identified today as a subsurface system of fractures and faults in the earth's crust. The Mississippi embayment is a broad trough filled with marine sedimentary rocks about 50-100 millions years old and river sediments less than 5 millions years old. ), Earthquake chronology for New Madrid seismic zone from dating and correlation of liquefaction features at sites (listed at top) along NE-SW transect. Some sites show age estimates for more than one feature related to different events (e.g., Eaker 2 and L2). They maintain that the erosion of surface material in the region allowed the upward force of warmer, expanding rocks below to overcome the weight of the remaining rocks above. Lying in the central area of the North American Plate, the seismic zone is about 45 miles (70 km) wide and about 125 miles (200 km) long. What is the estimate of the recurrence interval for 1811-1812 type earthquakes? The New Madrid seismic zone is located in the northern part of what has been called the Mississippi embayment. Log of trench wall at Dodd site near Steele, Missouri, where sand blow and two associated sand dikes are exposed. It is also being suggested that Juventus will not force the five-time Ballon d'Or winner to stay if … The Great Prarie settlement, one of the most flourishing before on the west bank of the Mississippi, was much diminished. to 1000 A.D. and 800 to 1670 A.D., respectively. earthquakes are composed of multiple, fining upward layers similar in thickness to those that formed in 1811-1812. The Paleozoic rocks are underlain by even older rocks that appear to have been deformed about 600 million years ago when the North American continent almost broke apart. Photograph of sand dike and sill exposed in drainage ditch in southeastern Missouri. This process is accompanied by high pore water pressures that can force sand, water, and mud upward, often forming the signature sand blows of the New Madrid seismic zone. Geologic and seismotectonic model of the New Madrid region (modified from Braile et. Inferred timing of events is shown with colored bands. (Credit: Martitia Tuttle. T1 is generally used for international flights and is home to about 40 airlines. A map of earthquakes epicenters, however, reflects faulting at depth and shows that the earthquakes define several branches of the New Madrid seismic zone in northeastern Arkansas, southwestern Kentucky, southeastern Missouri, and northwestern Tennessee. The pre-event ground surface was displaced downward by 70 to 80 cm between the two sand dikes. After the earthquake [of 1811-1812] moderated in violence, the country exhibited a melancholy aspect of chasms, of sand covering the earth, of trees thrown down, or lying at an angle of forty-five degrees, or split in the middle. The photo was taken on February 14, 2016 after the Christchurch, New Zealand earthquake. The Mississippi embayment is a broad trough filled with marine sedimentary rocks about 50-100 millions years old and river sediments less than 5 millions years old. More useful are the estimates of the likely amount of ground shaking that can be expected, contained in the National Seismic Hazard maps. Most large earthquakes around the world have induced liquefaction. New Madrid Seismic Zone (NMSZ), region of poorly understood, deep-seated faults in Earth’s crust that zigzag southwest-northeast through Arkansas, Missouri, Tennessee, and Kentucky, U.S. The damming of the river would have temporarily backed the river up, which may account for the descriptions of the river boat pilots. Sand sills usually take the form of lenses intruded below clay layers and are connected to sand dikes. Therefore, the estimated age of the sand blow is 1290-1460 A.D. (Public domain.). We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. Archaeology has played an important role in recognizing and dating prehistoric earthquake-induced liquefaction features in the New Madrid region. Although there is great uncertainty regarding the cause of earthquakes, scientists generally do agree on what happens when they do occur, that is, the likely levels of ground shaking associated with the waves earthquakes emit. For example, artifacts in an occupation horizon buried by a sand blow can provide an estimate of the maximum age of the liquefaction feature; whereas, artifacts in an horizon developed in the top of a sand blow can provide an estimate of its minimum age. It shows 20 localities where geologists have found and published their findings on faults or evidence of large earthquakes (from sand blows; see image to the right). When people think of earthquakes in the United States, they tend to think of the west coast. Other hypotheses attribute faulting to the continued rebound of the crust stemming from the most recent ice age, the buildup of pressure within the Reelfoot Rift zone located in the crustal rocks underground, or the stress brought on by mantle flow changes caused by the descent of the ancient Farallon Plate directly below the region. Studies focusing on earthquake-induced liquefaction features utilized archaeology and radiocarbon dating to estimate the ages of liquefaction features, and thus, the timing of the earthquakes that caused them. Does everyone within USGS agree on the cause and effects of a future New Madrid earthquake? What conditions would increase or decrease the amount of liquefaction? Public domain.). Earthquake-induced liquefaction features are distinctive and form as the result of strong ground shaking. Flood deposits bury other sand blows. Shaking can cause ground failure of various types, including liquefaction and landsliding. See also: Detailed Summary of the 1811-1812 New Madrid Earthquake Sequence, Woodcut by Henry Howe, from Historical Collections of the Great West (Cincinnati, 1854, p.239). What is the potential for a large New Madrid earthquake triggering an earthquake in the Wabash Valley? Some Earth scientists suggest that fracturing in this region resulted from stresses brought on by the downcutting of the Mississippi River into the surrounding landscape between 10,000 and 16,000 years ago. Over the past decade, paleoseismic studies have begun to unravel the earthquake history of the New Madrid seismic zone. We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. Furthermore, sand blows attributed to the 1450 A.D., 900 A.D., and 2350 B.C. Diagnostic artifacts found in association with sand blows provide a preliminary estimate of the age of the causative earthquake. We now know that some of the sand blows pre-date 1811 and formed as the result of prehistoric New Madrid earthquakes. Three earthquakes had a magnitude of 7.0 or greater. News Real Madrid-Gipuzkoa Basket: league leaders look to extend their run in the league. Many structures in Memphis, Tenn., St. Louis, Mo., and other communities in the central Mississippi River Valley region are vulnerable and at risk from severe ground shaking. Deformation of the land surface directly over a fault that moves may manifest as very localized uplift or subsidence, or lateral distortions of up to several meters (for a very large earthquake). Lying in the central area of the North American Plate, the seismic zone is about 45 miles (70 km) wide and about Geographic Names Information System (GNIS), Mapping, Remote Sensing, and Geospatial Data, Detailed Summary of the 1811-1812 New Madrid Earthquake Sequence. Thousands of milder aftershocks occurred daily for more than a year. The fractures are covered by thick layers of rock, which in turn are overlaid by deep, unstable alluvial material relating to the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers. Photograph and schematic cross-section illustrating earthquake-induced liquefaction and formation of sand dikes and sand blows. In most situations, the State Surveys are the ones responsible to the State Governors and the USGS works closely with them. The victory moved Madrid three points in front of third-place Barcelona, which routed Alavés 5-1 at home on Saturday. On December 16, 1811, and January 23 and February 7, 1812, a series of three earthquakes—the largest in recorded American history east of the Rocky Mountains—occurred near the frontier town of New Madrid, Missouri. Sand blow buries soil that was at ground surface at time of event. For scale, knife is 8 cm long. If we use the data on historical seismicity combined with the new information on recurrence of large earthquakes, and make the same assumptions that go into the National Seismic Hazard maps, we would estimate a 25-40% chance of a magnitude 6.0 and greater earthquake in the next 50 years and about a 7-10% probability of a repeat of the 1811-1812 earthquakes in the same time period. We have learned a tremendous amount about the New Madrid seismic zone since 1985. One such uplift related to faulting near New Madrid, Missouri, temporarily forced the Mississippi River to flow backwards. al., 1984). New Madrid Seismic Zone - Quaternary Fault Localities. Atlético de Madrid and the world's leading money transfer company have renewed their partnership for another season. No job has the most pressure, given all that this club has achieved and the sky-high expectations of the Madridistas themselves. Real Madrid official website with news, photos, videos and sale of tickets for the next matches. Zea maize, or corn, became dominant in the Native American diet about 1000 to 1050 A.D. and is as an important temporal marker in the region. The first shock was felt from Canada to New Orleans and as far away as Boston, Massachusetts and Washington, D.C. All we know is that this has not happened in the past few 1811-1812-sized New Madrid earthquake sequences. However, it is VERY important to note that these estimates alone do not include information about WHERE the earthquakes might occur and therefore what shaking might affect any given location. Three sequences of well-documented, major ~M7+ earthquakes (1811-1812 CE, ~1450 CE, and ~900 CE) in the New Madrid seismic zone, USA, contribute significantly to seismic hazard in the region. In this way, sand blows across the New Madrid region were found to have formed during earthquakes about 1450 A.D., 900 A.D., 300 A.D., and 2350 B.C. Liquefaction occurs when loose, sandy, water saturated soils are strongly shaken. Detailed investigations can further constrain the age of the event. The New Madrid seismic zone is located in the northern part of what has been called the Mississippi embayment. Public domain. Check the LaLiga Santander 2020/2021 table, positions and stats for the teams of the %competition_season% on AS.com The SLU-Madrid Campus is home to students from the United States, Spain and more than 50 other countries. During the 1811 and 1812 earthquakes, liquefaction and resulting lateral spreading was severe and widespread. During the process of continental rifting, a deep valley formed that is bounded by faults and known as the Reelfoot rift. In the past, the sand blows were attributed to the 1811-1812 earthquakes. They caused bank failures along the Mississippi River, landslides along Chickasaw Bluffs in Kentucky and Tennessee, and uplift and subsidence of large tracts of land in the Mississippi River floodplain. The Catalan club has played one less game than Madrid. Can you explain liquefaction? Effects of liquefaction extended about 200 km northeast of the New Madrid seismic zone in White County, Illinois, 240 km to the north-northwest near St. Louis, Missouri, and 250 km to the south near the mouth of the Arkansas River. Since 1974, seismometers, instruments that measure ground shaking, have recorded thousands of small to moderate earthquakes. There is broad agreement in the scientific community that a continuing concern exists for a major destructive earthquake in the New Madrid seismic zone. The latest football transfer news and breaking transfer rumours. — Madrid Zone (@theMadridZone) March 11, 2021 Manager Andrea Pirlo has confirmed he will continue beyond the current season despite the team's struggling form under him. One account of this phenomena stated that the Pemiscot Bayou "blew up for a distance of nearly fifty miles.". Computer Simulation of a Magnitude 7.7 Earthquake in the New Madrid Seismic Zone. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. The New Madrid Seismic Zone, sometimes called the New Madrid Fault Line, is a major active seismic zone in the southern and midwestern United States. It explains the need for concern about earthquakes for those residents and describes what one can expect... A series of earthquakes hit the New Madrid seismic zone of southeastern Missouri, northeastern Arkansas, and adjacent parts of Tennessee and Kentucky, in December 1811 to February 1812. These would have significant effect on the landscape in terms of damming streams, spewing sand and mud into fields, and causing areas near bluffs and rivers to slide and form a broken up surface. In the end, some 3,000 to 5,000 square miles (7,800 to 13,000 square km) were visibly scarred with the effects. The soils lose their capacity to bear any weight and can flow like a liquid. Earthquakes with magnitudes equal to or larger than 2.5 are shown by the yellow dots.

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